# Video Generation

> An image is a 2-D tensor. A video is a 3-D one. The theory is the same; the compute is 10-100x harder. OpenAI's Sora (Feb 2024) proved it was possible. By 2026 Veo 2, Kling 1.5, Runway Gen-3, Pika 2.0, and WAN 2.2 ship production video from text at 1080p — and the open-weights stack (CogVideoX, HunyuanVideo, Mochi-1, WAN 2.2) is 12 months behind.

**Type:** Build
**Languages:** Python
**Prerequisites:** Phase 8 · 07 (Latent Diffusion), Phase 7 · 09 (ViT), Phase 8 · 06 (DDPM)
**Time:** ~45 minutes

## The Problem

A 10-second 1080p video at 24fps is 240 frames of 1920×1080×3 pixels. That's ~1.5 GB of raw data per clip. Pixel-space diffusion is infeasible. You need:

1. **Spatiotemporal compression.** A VAE that encodes videos, not frames, into a sequence of spatial-temporal patches.
2. **Temporal coherence.** Frames need to share content, lighting, and object identity over seconds. The net has to model motion.
3. **Compute budget.** Video training is 10-100x more expensive than image for the same model size.
4. **Conditioning.** Text, image (first-frame), audio, or another video. Most production models accept all four.

The architecture that solved this is the **Diffusion Transformer (DiT)** applied to spatiotemporal patches, trained on huge (prompt, caption, video) datasets. Same diffusion loss as Lesson 06.

## The Concept

![Video diffusion: patchify, DiT, decode](../assets/video-generation.svg)

### Patchify

Encode the video with a 3D VAE (learned spatiotemporal compression). The latent is shape `[T_latent, H_latent, W_latent, C_latent]`. Split into patches of size `[t_p, h_p, w_p]`. For Sora-style models, `t_p = 1` (per-frame patches) or `t_p = 2` (every two frames). A 10-second 1080p video compresses to ~20,000-100,000 patches.

### Spatiotemporal DiT

A transformer processes the flat sequence of patches. Each patch has a 3D positional embedding (time + y + x). Attention is usually factorized:

- **Spatial attention** within each frame's patches.
- **Temporal attention** across frames at the same spatial location.
- **Full 3D attention** is 16-100x more expensive; used only at low resolution or in research.

### Text conditioning

Cross-attention with a large text encoder (T5-XXL for Sora, CogVideoX-5B uses T5-XXL). Long prompts matter — Sora's training set had GPT-generated dense re-captions averaging 200 tokens per clip.

### Training

Standard diffusion loss (ε or v prediction) over spatiotemporal latents. Data: web video + ~100M curated clips + synthetic text captions. Compute: 10,000+ GPU hours for even a small research run; Sora-scale is 100,000+.

## The 2026 production landscape

| Model | Date | Max duration | Max res | Open weights? | Notable |
|-------|------|--------------|---------|---------------|---------|
| Sora (OpenAI) | 2024-02 | 60s | 1080p | No | First model to show world simulator properties at scale |
| Sora Turbo | 2024-12 | 20s | 1080p | No | Production Sora at 5x faster inference |
| Veo 2 (Google) | 2024-12 | 8s | 4K | No | Highest quality + physics in 2025 |
| Veo 3 | 2025 Q3 | 15s | 4K | No | Native audio and stronger camera control |
| Kling 1.5 / 2.1 (Kuaishou) | 2024-2025 | 10s | 1080p | No | Best human motion in 2025 Q1 |
| Runway Gen-3 Alpha | 2024-06 | 10s | 768p | No | Professional video tools on top |
| Pika 2.0 | 2024-10 | 5s | 1080p | No | Strongest character consistency |
| CogVideoX (THUDM) | 2024 | 10s | 720p | Yes (2B, 5B) | First open 5B-scale video |
| HunyuanVideo (Tencent) | 2024-12 | 5s | 720p | Yes (13B) | Open SOTA late 2024 |
| Mochi-1 (Genmo) | 2024-10 | 5.4s | 480p | Yes (10B) | Most permissively licensed |
| WAN 2.2 (Alibaba) | 2025-07 | 5s | 720p | Yes | Strongest open model mid-2025 |

Open weights are closing the gap faster than in the image space: HunyuanVideo + WAN 2.2 LoRAs already power most open-source workflows by mid-2026.

```figure
video-diffusion-denoise
```

## Build It

`code/main.py` simulates the core spatiotemporal DiT idea: patchify a small synthetic video, add a per-patch position embedding, and denoise the whole sequence with a transformer-style attention over patches. No numpy; pure Python. We show that temporal coherence emerges even in 1-D when adjacent-frame patches share a denoiser and position embeddings.

### Step 1: patchify a synthetic 1-D "video"

```python
def make_video(T_frames=8, rng=None):
    # a "video" is a sequence of 1-D values following a smooth trajectory
    base = rng.gauss(0, 1)
    return [base + 0.3 * t + rng.gauss(0, 0.1) for t in range(T_frames)]
```

### Step 2: position embedding per frame

```python
def pos_embed(t, dim):
    return sinusoidal(t, dim)
```

### Step 3: denoiser sees the whole sequence

Instead of denoising each frame independently, our tiny net concatenates all frame values + their position embeddings and predicts the noise for all frames jointly.

### Step 4: temporal coherence test

After training, sample a video. Measure the frame-to-frame delta. If the model has learned temporal structure, the deltas stay smaller than sampling each frame independently.

## Pitfalls

- **Independent per-frame sampling = flicker.** If you run image diffusion on each frame separately, the output flickers because each frame's noise is independent. Video diffusion fixes this by coupling the frames through attention or shared noise.
- **Naive 3D attention = OOM.** Full 3D attention on a 10-second 1080p latent is hundreds of billions of operations. Factorize into spatial + temporal.
- **Data captioning matters more than size.** Sora's main upgrade over prior work was training on ~10x more detailed captions (GPT-4 re-labelled clips). OpenAI's technical report is explicit on this.
- **First-frame conditioning.** Most production models also accept an image as the first frame. This is "image-to-video" mode; training includes this variant.
- **Physics drift.** Long clips (>10s) accumulate subtle inconsistencies. Sliding-window generation + keyframe anchoring helps.

## Use It

| Use case | 2026 pick |
|----------|-----------|
| Highest-quality text-to-video, hosted | Veo 3 or Sora |
| Camera-controlled cinematic | Runway Gen-3 with motion brushes |
| Character consistency across clips | Pika 2.0 or Kling 2.1 |
| Open weights, fast fine-tune | WAN 2.2 + LoRA |
| Image-to-video | WAN 2.2-I2V, Kling 2.1 I2V, or Runway |
| Audio-to-video lip sync | Veo 3 (native audio) or a dedicated lip-sync model |
| Video editing | Runway Act-Two, Kling Motion Brush, Flux-Kontext (still-frame) |

Cost per second of video at quality parity has dropped 20x between 2024 and 2026.

## Ship It

Save `outputs/skill-video-brief.md`. Skill takes a video brief (duration, aspect ratio, style, camera plan, subject consistency, audio) and outputs: model + hosting, prompt scaffolding (camera language, subject description, motion descriptors), seed + reproducibility protocol, and a frame-level QA checklist.

## Exercises

1. **Easy.** In `code/main.py`, compare frame-to-frame delta for (a) independent per-frame sampling, (b) joint sequence sampling. Report the mean and variance of the deltas.
2. **Medium.** Add a first-frame condition: pin frame 0 to a given value and sample the rest. Measure how the pinned value propagates.
3. **Hard.** Use HuggingFace diffusers to run CogVideoX-2B on a local GPU. Time 20 inference steps at 720p for a 6-second clip. Profile the spatiotemporal attention to identify the bottleneck.

## Key Terms

| Term | What people say | What it actually means |
|------|-----------------|-----------------------|
| Video VAE | "3-D VAE" | Encoder that compresses `(T, H, W, C)` → spatiotemporal latent. |
| Patches | "The tokens" | Fixed-size 3-D blocks of the latent; input to the DiT. |
| Factorized attention | "Spatial + temporal" | Run attention over space, then over time; skip full 3-D attention. |
| Image-to-video (I2V) | "Animate this photo" | Model takes an image + text, outputs a video that starts from it. |
| Keyframe conditioning | "Anchor frames" | Pin specific frames to control the video's arc. |
| Motion brush | "Directional hint" | UI input where the user paints motion vectors onto the image. |
| Re-captioning | "Dense captions" | Using an LLM to re-label training clips with detailed prompts. |
| Flicker | "Temporal artifact" | Frame-to-frame inconsistency; fixed with coupled denoising. |

## Production note: video latents are a memory-bandwidth problem

A 10-second 1080p clip at 24 fps is 240 frames × 1920 × 1080 × 3 ≈ 1.5 GB of raw pixels. After a 4× video VAE compression (`2 × spatial × 2 × temporal`) the latent is ~100 MB per request. Run this through a spatiotemporal DiT for 30 steps at batch 1 and you are moving ~3 GB/step through HBM — memory bandwidth, not FLOPs, is the bottleneck.

Three production knobs, all straight from production-inference literature inference chapter:

- **TP across the DiT.** Text-to-video models are routinely ≥10B params. TP=4 across 4 H100s is standard; PP=2 × TP=2 for 405B-class models. Latency per step drops roughly linearly with TP up to the all-reduce wall.
- **Frame batching = continuous batching.** At generation time, video is conceptually a batch of frames linked by attention. Continuous batching (in-flight scheduling) applies: start rendering frame `t+1` while frame `t-1` is being returned, if the model architecture allows sliding-window generation.
- **Clip-level prefill cache.** For image-to-video, the first-frame conditioning is analogous to an LLM's prompt prefill: compute it once, reuse across the temporal decoder passes. This is effectively a KV-cache for video.

## Further Reading

- [Brooks et al. (2024). Video generation models as world simulators](https://openai.com/index/video-generation-models-as-world-simulators/) — Sora technical report.
- [Yang et al. (2024). CogVideoX: Text-to-Video Diffusion Models with An Expert Transformer](https://arxiv.org/abs/2408.06072) — CogVideoX.
- [Kong et al. (2024). HunyuanVideo: A Systematic Framework for Large Video Generative Models](https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.03603) — HunyuanVideo.
- [Genmo (2024). Mochi 1 preview model card](https://huggingface.co/genmo/mochi-1-preview) — Mochi-1.
- [Alibaba (2025). WAN 2.2](https://wanvideo.io/) — open SOTA mid-2025.
- [Ho, Salimans, Gritsenko et al. (2022). Video Diffusion Models](https://arxiv.org/abs/2204.03458) — the seminal video diffusion paper.
- [Blattmann et al. (2023). Align your Latents (Video LDM)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2304.08818) — Stable Video Diffusion's ancestor.